WBBSE Class 9 History Solutions Chapter 3 Europe in the 19th Century: Conflict of Nationalist and Monarchial Ideas

Detailed explanations in West Bengal Board Class 9 History Book Solutions Chapter 3 Europe in the 19th Century: Conflict of Nationalist and Monarchial Ideas offer valuable context and analysis.

WBBSE Class 9 History Chapter 3 Question Answer – Europe in the 19th Century: Conflict of Nationalist and Monarchial Ideas

Very Short Answer (VSA) Type Questions : (1 mark for each question)

Question 1.
What are the modern ideals born of the French Revolution?
Answer:
The modern ideals born of the French Revolution are nationalism, liberalism and democracy.

Question 2.
Which dynasty was restored in France according to the Principle of Legitimacy?
Answer:
The Bourbon dynasty was restored in France according to the Principle of Legitimacy.

Question 3.
Name the king who was restored to the throne of France according to the ‘Principle of Legitimacy’.
Answer:
The king who was restored to the throne of France according to the Principle of Legitimacy was Louis XVIII.

Question 4.
Who were the members of the Concert of Europe?
Answer:
The members of the Concert of Europe were Austria, Russia, Prussia and England.

Question 5.
What was the objective of the Principle of Legitimacy of the Vienna Congress?
Answer:
The objective of the Principle of Legitimacy of the Vienna Congress was to bring back the original ruling dynasties which used to rule in different parts of Europe before the outbreak of the French Revolution.

Question 6.
What was the objective of the Principle of Balance of Power of the Vienna Congress?
Answer:
The objective of the Principle of Balance of Power of the Vienna Congress was to reconstitute the map of Europe in such a way that one state could not beat another in the race for power.

Question 7.
What was the objective of the Principle of Compensation of the Vienna Congress?
Answer:
The objective of the Principle of Compensation of the Vienna Congress was to reward those powers which played an important part in the defeat of Napoleon with the possession of different territories.

Question 8.
Name the countries which were benefitted by the Principle of Compensation.
Answer:
The countries which were benefitted by the Principle of Compensation were –

1. Austria
2. Russia
3. Prussia
4. England.

Question 9.
What is ‘Concert of Europe’?
Answer:
The Big Four-Austria, Prussia, England and Russia devised a system, known as the ‘Concert of Europe’ to maintain the political arrangement made in the Vienna Congress and to ensure peace in Europe.

Question 10.
Who were the Big Four at the Congress of Vienna?
Answer:
The Big Four at the Congress of Vienna were Austria, Russia, Prussia and England.

Question 11.
What was the period of Metternich’s Prime Ministership?
Answer:
The period of Metternich’s Prime Ministership was long 40 years from 1809-1848.

Question 12.
Which leader called the Congress of Vienna which tried to restore Europe to the way it was before Napoleon?
Answer:
Metternich, the prince of Austria called the Congress of Vienna which tried to restore Europe to the way it was before Napoleon.

Question 13.
Where was the Vienna Congress held?
Answer:
The Vienna Congress was held in Vienna, the capital of Austria.

Question 14.
When did the Metternich system end?
Answer:
The Metternich system ended in 1848 as a result of the February Revolution.

Question 15.
Who was Metternich?
Answer:
Metternich was the Prime Minister of Austria (1809-48) and the President of the Vienna Congress (1815).

Question 16.
Who was Castlereagh?
Answer:
Castlereagh was the British Foreign Minister who represented England in the Vienna Congress.

Question 17.
What was the capital of Austria?
Answer:
The capital of Austria was Vienna.

Question 18.
Who was the most influential leader at the Congress of Vienna?
Answer:
The most influential leader at the Congress of Vienna was prince Metternich.

Question 19.
When did Metternich become the Prime Minister of Austria?
Answer:
Metternich became the Prime Minister of Austria in 1809.

Question 20.
Who represented France in the Vienna Congress?
Answer:
Talleyrand represented France in the Vienna Congress.

Question 21.
When was the Congress of Troppau held?
Answer:
The Congress of Troppau was held in 1820.

Question 22.
When did the July Revolution break out in France?
Answer:
The July Revolution broke out in France in 1830.

Question 23.
What was the period of ‘July Monarchy’?
Answer:
The period of July Monarchy was 1830-1848.

Question 24.
Name the countries where the impact of the July Revolution was felt.
Answer:
The impact of the July Revolution was felt in Germany, Belgium, Poland, Spain, Portugal and England.

Question 25.
Name two leaders of the July Revolution.
Answer:
Two leaders of the July Revolution were Thiers and Lafayette.

Question 26.
Name the countries which were inspired by the success of the July Revolution.
Answer:
The countries which were inspired by the success of the July Revolution were Belgium, Poland, Portugal, Spain, England, Italy and Germany.

Question 27.
Who issued the ‘July Ordinance’ and when?
Answer:
The July Ordinance was issued by The French emperor Charles X in 1830 ( 25 July).

Question 28.
Name the Bourbon king who was overthrown by the July Revolution in France.
Answer:
The Bourbon king who was overthrown by the July Revolution in France was Charles X.

Question 29.
Who was Polignac?
Answer:
Polignac was the minister of the French King Charles X, who issued arbitrary ordinances like restricting the freedom of press, diminishing the number of electors and curbing the voting rights of the people.

Question 30.
Who ascended the throne of France after the death of Napoleon?
Answer:
After the death of Napoleon, Louis XVIII, the brother of Louis XVI of the Bourbon dynasty ascended the throne of France.

Question 31.
Who was the ruler of France when the July Revolution broke out?
Answer:
Charles X was the ruler of France when the July Revolution broke out.

Question 32.
Who was the Prime Minister of the French king Charles X?
Answer:
Polignac was the Prime Minister of the French king Charles X.

Question 33.
King of which dynasty was set up in France after the July Revolution?
Answer:
After the July Revolution Louis Philippe of the Orleans dynasty was set up in France.

Question 34.
To which dynasty did Louis Philippe belong?
Answer:
Louis Philippe belonged to the Orleans dynasty.

Question 35.
Which year is known as the ‘Year of Revolution’ and why?
Answer:
The year 1848 is known as the ‘Year of Revolution’ because the revolution which broke out in 1848 in France expedited national movements in 15 European countries.

Question 36
Who was Louis Philippe?
Answer:
Louis Philippe of the Orleans dynasty was the ruler of France.

Question 37.
Who was Guizot?
Answer:
Guizot was the adviser and Prime Minister of Louis Philippe, the monarch of France.

Question 38.
Name the countries which were influenced by the February Revolution.
Answer:
The countries which were influenced by the February Revolution were Germany, Italy, Austria, Hungary, Denmark, Netherland etc.

Question 39.
In which year did Louis Napoleon declare himself the ‘Emperor of France’?
Answer:
On 1852 Louis Napoleon declared himself the Emperor of France.

Question 40.
When was Second Republic established in France?
Answer:
Second Republic was established in France in 1848.

Question 41.
Which revolution influenced the establishment of Second French Republic in France?
Answer:
The February Revolution of 1848 influenced the establishment of Second French Republic in France.

Question 42.
When was the Second Empire established in France?
Answer:
The French emperor Louis Napoleon (or Napoleon III) in 1852 put an end to the second French Republic and established the Second French Empire.

Question 43.
Who was Louis Kossuth?
Answer:
Louis Kossuth was the nationalist leader of Hungary during the February Revolution.

Question 44.
Which country stood in the way of unity and democracy in Italy?
Answer:
Austria stood in the way of unity and democracy in Italy.

Question 45.
Name the leaders who played the most important part in the unification of Italy.
Answer:
The leaders who played the most important part in the unification of Italy were Mazzini, Cavour and Garibaldi.

Question 46.
Which treaty ended the Battle of Sadowa?
Answer:
The Battle of Sadowa ended with the treaty of Prague.

Question 47.
In which year and between whom was the Battle of Sedan fought?
Answer:
The Battle of Sedan was fought in 1870 between Prussia and France.

Question 48.
In which year and between whom was the Battle of Sadowa fought?
Answer:
The Battle of Sadowa was fought in 1866 between Prussia and Austria.

Question 49.
In which year and between whom was the treaty of Villafranca signed?
Answer:
The treaty of Villafranca was signed in 1859 between Austria and France.

Question 50.
Name the only state which was independent before unification of Italy.
Answer:
The only state which was independent before the unification of Italy was PiedmontSardinia.

Question 51.
Name one secret society established during the Italian unification movement.
Answer:
Carbonari was a secret society established during the Italian unification movement.

Question 52.
Who established Young Italy?
Answer:
Young Italy was established by Mazzini.

Question 53.
What is Carbonari?
Answer:
Carbonari was a secret society of Italy that aimed to unite Italy into a single state, to achieve liberty and drive the Austrians out of Italy.

Question 54.
When was the Italian unification complete?
Answer:
The Italian unification was complete in 1870.

Question 55.
Who were called the ‘Red Shirts’?
Answer:
Garibaldi’s followers were called the Red Shirts.

Question 56.
Who was the general of the Red Shirt volunteer force?
Answer:
The general of the Red Shirt volunteer force was Garibaldi.

Question 57.
What is the meaning of Risorgimento?
Answer:
The meaning of Risorgimento is ‘rising again’.

Question 58.
Who said, “Italy is a mere geographical expression”?
Answer:
Metternich, the Austrian Chancellor said, “Italy is a mere geographical expression”.

Question 59.
In which year was ‘Young Italy’ established by Mazzini?
Answer:
‘Young Italy’ was established by Mazzini in 1832.

Question 60.
With which secret society was Mazzini associated?
Answer:
Mazzini was associated with ‘Carbonari’, a secret society of Italy.

Question 61.
Who was the arch priest of Italian nationalism?
Answer:
Joseph Mazzini was the arch priest of Italian nationalism.

Question 62.
What was the journal published by Count Cavour?
Answer:
The name of the journal published by Count Cavour was Risorgimento.

Question 63.
In which year was the treaty of Frankfurt signed?
Answer:
The treaty of Frankfurt was signed in 1871.

Question 64.
After which battle Germany became united?
Answer:
Germany became united after the Battle of Sedan in 1870 fought between France and Prussia.

Question 65.
What is ‘Pan-Germanism’?
Answer:
‘Pan-Germanism’ ‘means the idea or sentiment of a united German people which developed in Germany under the influence of poets, philosophers and historians like Bohmer, Fichte, Hegel, Hausser etc.

Question 66.
Who was the real architect of the unification of Germany?
Answer:
The real architect of the unification of Germany was Bismarck.

Question 67.
Who became the emperor or ‘Kaiser’ after German unification?
Answer:
The Prussian king William I became the emperor or Kaiser after German Unification.

Question 68.
Between whom was the treaty of Frankfurt signed?
Answer:
The treaty of Frankfurt was signed between Prussia and France.

Question 69.
What is ‘Confederation of the Rhine’?
Answer:
Napoleon Bonaparte formed forty-nine states out of the former three hundred states in Germany and inaugurated a federal administrative system in Germany known as the Confederation of the Rhine.

Question 70.
Who followed the policy of ‘Blood and Iron’?
Answer:
Otto Von Bismarck followed the policy of ‘Blood and Iron’.

Question 71.
Who was Count Beneditti?
Answer:
Count Beneditti was the ambassador of the French king Napoleon III to the Prussian emperor William I.

Question 72.
Who was known as the ‘Iron Chancellor’?
Answer:
Bismarck, the leader of German unification, was known as the Iron Chancellor.

Question 73.
Between whom was the Treaty of Villafranca signed?
Answer:
The Treaty of Villafranca was signed between the French emperor Napoleon III and Austria.

Question 74.
In which year Bismarck became the Prime Minister of Prussia?
Answer:
Bismarck became the Prime Minister of Prussia in 1862.

Question 75.
Where was the Confederation of Rhine formed?
Answer:
The Confederation of Rhine was formed in Germany.

Question 76.
In which year was the Confederation of Rhine formed?
Answer:
The confederation of Rhine was formed in 1806.

Question 77.
Who became the Emperor of united Germany?
Answer:
Kaiser William I became the emperor of united Germany.

Question 78.
When was the Treaty of Gastein signed?
Answer:
The Treaty of Gastein was signed in 1865.

Question 79.
What were the two Duchies which were divided between Austria and Prussia according to the Treaty of Gastein?
Answer:
According to the Treaty of Gastein the two Duchies Schleswig and Holstein were divided between Austria and Prussia.

Question 80.
What is the other name of ‘Balkan’ region?
Answer:
The other name of Balkan region is Near East.

Question 81.
Name some nationalities living in the Balkan region.
Answer:
Answer: Some nationalities living in the Balkan region were Greek, Serb, Romanian, Albanian, Bulgarian etc.

Question 82.
In which year and between whom was the Treaty of San Stephano signed?
Answer:
The Treaty of San Stephano was signed in 1878 between Russia and Turkey.

Question 83.
In which year and by which treaty did Turkey accept the independence of Greece?
Answer:
Turkey accepted the independence of Greece by the Treaty of London in 1832.

Question 84.
Why was the war between England, France and Russia in 1854 known as the Crimean War?
Answer:
The war between England, France and Russia in 1854 was known as the Crimean War because it was fought in Crimea, a peninsula in Southern Russia.

Question 85.
When was the Crimean War fought?
Answer:
The Crimean War was fought during 185456.

Question 86.
Name one Socialist leader of Europe.
Answer:
One Socialist leader of Europe was Louis Blanc.

Question 87.
Which country is known as the ‘Sick man of Europe’?
Answer:
Turkey is known as the ‘Sick man of Europe’.

Question 88.
Who was Louis Kossuth?
Answer:
Louis Kossuth was a nationalist leader of Hungary during the February Revolution of 1848.

Question 89.
Who was known as Czar?
Answer:
The emperor or king of Russia was known as Czar.

Question 90.
Which treaty ended the Crimean War?
Answer:
The Treaty of Paris signed on 30th March, 1856 ended the Crimean War.

Question 91.
What is the meaning of the secret society Philke Hetaira?
Answer:
The meaning of the secret society Philke Hetaira is friendly brotherhood.

Question 92.
Who is known as the ‘Father of Modern Russia’?
Answer:
Czar Peter the Great is known as the Father of Modern Russia.

Question 93.
When was the Second Balkan War fought?
Answer:
The Second Balkan War was fought in 1913.

Question 94.
Where was the secret society Hetaira Philke founded?
Answer:
The secret society Hetaira Philke was founded in Odessa, Greece (now it is in Ukraine).

Question 95.
What is the Russian Parliament known as?
Answer:
The Russian parliament is known as ‘Duma’.

Question 96.
What was Zemstvo?
Answer:
Zemstvo was the organ of rural self government in the Russian empire before the Russian revolution.

Question 97.
Who were the Kulaks?
Answer:
The Kulaks were the well-to-do peasants of Russia who emerged after the emancipation of serfs in the 19th century.

Question 98.
What was ‘mir’?
Answer:
Mir was village commune or village council in Russia.

Question 99.
Between whom was the Crimean War fought?
Answer:
The Crimean War was fought betwen Ottoman Turkey, England, France and Piedmont on one side and Russia on the other.

Question 100.
In how many years instalment the emancipated peasants had to pay off their debts to the Russian government?
Answer:
In 49 years instalment the emancipated peasants had to pay off their debts to the Russian Government.

Short Answer (SA) Type Questions : (2 marks for each question)

Question 1.
What led to the summoning of the Vienna Congress?
Answer:
The defeat of Napoleon, the French emperor, in the Battle of Waterloo (1815) meant the overthrow of the vast empire he had built. It was necessary to decide the fate of the territories which Napoleon had conquered. So the leaders who had played the most important part in defeating Napoleon met at Vienna (1815) to reconstruct the political map of Europe devastated by Napoleonic warfare.

Question 2.
Who were the representatives at the Vienna Congress?
Answer:
The most important among the representatives at the Vienna Congress was the Austrian Chancellor, Prince Von Metternich. Other important representatives were Prince Talleyrand of France, Viscount Castlereagh and the Duke of Wellington of England. Hardenberg of Prussia, Czar Alexander I of Russia, Emperor Francis I of Austria and Emperor Frederick William III of Prussia also attended the Congress.

Question 3.
What arrangements were made in Europe according to the Principle of Balance of Power?
Answer:
In order to ensure that peace prevails in all of Europe, it was decided at the Vienna Congress that the power of different countries of Europe should be balanced so that no country could become powerful enough to threaten another country. France was responsible for disturbing the peace of Europe. Therefore it was necessary to control her power. Keeping in view the idea of permanent peace in Europe, the power of Bavaria, Holland, Saxony, Sardinia and Prussia was increased.

Question 4.
What arrangements were made in Europe according to the Principle of Legitimacy?
Answer:
According to the Principle of Legitimacy, the new king Louis XVIII of the Bourbon dynasty ascended the French throne and the House of Orange was restored to the throne of Holland. The House of Savoy was restored to the kingdom of Piedmont in Italy and the Pope was restored to his papal kingdom. The rulers of small kingdoms overthrown by Napoleon were also brought back to their respective territories.

Question 5.
What were the main weaknesses of the Vienna Congress?
Answer:
The system built at Vienna Congress (1815) did not last long. Its main weaknesses were-

1. It completely ignored the will of the people. The people did not forget the lessons of the French Revolution and demanded that the government should be formed so as to derive its right from the will of the governed.
2. Moreover, in some countries like Germany and Italy, people who spoke the same language and were members of the same nationality were compelled to live in separate sates into which the countries were artificially divided.

Question 6.
What was the ‘Metternich System’?
Answer:
From the year 1815 to 1848, the Austrian Minister Metternich was the most commanding personality of Europe. He was the central figure of European diplomacy. He represented reaction in its extreme form and was the enemy of both democracy and nationalism. His policy was the maintenance of status quo keeping things as they were. Hence he set himself to resist all demands for reforms, all struggles for national independence, all aspirations for selfgovernment. He aimed at making Europe go back to the condition prevailing before 1789.

Question 7.
Why is the period between 1815 to 1848 known as the ‘Era of Metternich’?
Answer:
Metternich was the most influential man of Europe from 1815 to 1848. After the fall of Napoleon Bonaparte in the Battle of Waterioo, Metternich became the central figure not only in the politics of Austria but in the politics of the whole of Europe. Owing to his unlimited influence, the period of 34 years (1815-1848) is called the ‘Age of Metternich’ in the history of Europe.

Question 8.
What was Carisbad Decree?
Answer:
The famous Carlsbad Decrees were a series of resolutions issued by a conference of ministers from the major German states, meeting at Carlsbad in Bohemia in 1819. Under the instruction of Metternich, the German Diet, passed the Carlsbad Decrees which sought to impose restrictions on student societies and the independence of the press. It was also proposed that a central investigating commission should be set up with powers to search conspiratorial organizations. These decrees curbed all forms of liberalism by tight control over liberal propaganda in Germany.

Question 9.
What do you mean by nation state?
Answer:
A nation state refers to a sovereign state with well defined delineated boundaries, inhabited by people who are united by factors such as common descent, language, similar culture and ethnic character. It is also supposed to have a government of its choice. The people in a nation state are supposed to have cooperation, unity and strength.

Question 10.
in which year and during whose reign July Revolution broke out?
Answer:
The July Revolution broke out in 1830 during the reign of Charles X.

Question 11.
What do you mean by ‘July Monarchy’?
Answer:
Louis Philippe was nominated by the French Parliament to be the constitutional monarch of France in 1830. His monarchy is also known as ‘July Monarchy’ because of its installation as a result of the Revolution that took place in the month of July.

Question 12.
What were the four ordinances issued by Charles X in 1830 ?
Answer:
The four ordinances issued by Charles X in 1830 were:

• Suspending the liberty of press
• Dissolving the Chamber of Deputies
• Changing the electoral system
• Ordering fresh election.

Question 13.
What was the impact of July Revolution on Spain and Portugal?
Answer:
The people of Spain and Portugal, being influenced by the July Revolution, agitated for the introduction of democratic government. Under the pressure of popular agitation the rulers of those countries introduced liberal administrative measures.

Question 14.
What was the immediate result of the July Revolution of 1830 ?
Answer:
The immediate result of the July Revolution was the overthrow of Charles X, the French king. He was replaced by Louis Philippe, the Duke of Orleans. This hit hard the principle of legitimacy adopted by the Vienna Congress.

Question 15.
Mention any two effects of February Revolution outside France.
Answer:
Two effects of February Revolution outside France were-
1. It was due to the February Revolution of 1848 that Metternich, who for thirty nine years handled the politics of all countries of Europe, was forced to resign.
2. The February Revolution of 1848 gave a new experience to the nationalists. As a result of this revolution the spirit of militarism grew in Europe.

Question 16.
Mention any two effects of February Revolution on France.
Answer:
Two effects of February Revolution of France were:
1. The February Revolution brought an end to the monarchy of France and France was declared a Republic.
2. Through the Revolution of 1848 the people of France were able to establish their democratic rights permanently.

Question 17.
When and during whose reign did the February Revolution of 1848 break out?
Answer:
The February Revolution of 1848 broke out during the rule of Louis Philippe of the Orleans dynasty.

Question 18.
Mention two importance of the February Revolution of 1848.
Answer:
February Revolution of 1848 brought an end to the monarchical system in France. It also brought an end to the Vienna Settlement.

Question 19.
What did Napoleon do to unify Italy?
Answer:
Before the conquest of Napoleon, Italy was divided into small petty kingdoms, mostly ruled by foreign rulers. When Napoleon conquered Italy he united the different provinces of Italy and enforced his laws known as Code Napoleon. He drove away the feudal lords and built roads to unite different parts of Italy.

Question 20.
What was the condition of Italy before unification?
Answer:
Italy, before unification, was a divided country.

1. Besides Piedmont and the island of Sardinia, which were ruled by an Italian king in the north, the different parts of Italy were occupied by one or the other country.
2. Central Italy was ruled by the Pope, who was the head of the Church as well as of the Roman empire.
3. Austria occupied the northern part of Italy.
4. The southern part of Italy which included Naples and the island of Sicily was under the rule of the king of Naples.
5. Besides, many smaller parts of Italy were ruled by the princes of Austria.

Question 21.
Why was the Carbonari movement started in Italy?
Answer:
At the beginning of the 19th century, Italy was a geographical expression. The whole country was divided into a number of states. The rulers of each state were despots. The discontent against the existing system was first expressed in 1820 by a secret society.

Question 22.
What were the differences between the two organisations of Italy-Carbonari and Young Italy?
Answer:
Carbonari was a secret organisation of Italy where people of all age groups could join. But Young Italy was a youth organisation where any men upto the age of 40 could join.
The Carbonari was a secret society of the Italian rebles who wanted to liberate Italy through armed uprising. The members of Young Italy believed that organised mass uprising would bring Italian liberation.

Question 23.
What was ‘Young Italy’?
Answer:
Joseph Mazzini was an inspiring leader of Italy. He founded a party known as Young Italy in 1832. He had immense faith in the power and strength of the Italian youths. Young men up to the age of forty could be its members.

Question 24.
Who was Mazzini?
Answer:
Mazzini was the arch priest of Italian nationalism. He was the founder of the Young Italy movement. He rejected the idea of taking the help of foreign powers for Italian liberation. He believed that Italian youth and people will liberate themselves by sacrifice.

Question 25.
What were the limitations of Mazzini’s movement?
Answer:
The limitations of Mazzini’s movement were:
1. Mazzini was an idealist patriot but his programme of action was impractical. He was averse to take any help from any foreign power for the freedom of Italy.
2. Mazzini could not properly assess the military power of Italy. He could not realise that patriotism and self sacrifice were not sufficient in Italy’s fight against Austria.

Question 26.
What is ‘Risorgimento’?
Answer:
Cavour, a leader of the Italian unification movement, pointed out that Italy should be united under the house of Piedmont and a moderate constitution with a parliament that will satisfy Italy’s needs and aspirations, should be framed. In his journal ‘Risorgimento’ he again and again preached this idea in order to make the movement more influential.

Question 27.
Mention two provisions of the Pact of Plombieres.
Answer:
The Pact of Plombieres was signed between Napoleon III and Count Cavour in 1858. Two provisions of the Pact of Plombieres were:
1. Napoleon III agreed to support Piedmont in a war with Austria.
2. France was to get Savoy and Nice laying on her borders.

Question 28.
When and between whom was the Pact of Plombleres signed?
Answer:
The Pact of Plombieres was signed in 1858 between Napoleon III and Count Cavour.

Question 29.
How did the Crimean War influence the Italian unification movement?
Answer:
The main impediment to Italian unity was Austria. To gain support of European powers and to isolate Austria, Italy took part in many European wars. In the Crimean War (1854) Italy sided with England and France. As a reward for participation in the Crimean War by Piedmont-Sardinia, Italy was allowed the privilege of attending Paris Peace Conference (1854). In the Paris Peace Conference the Italian question was raised before the European Statesmen and won the support of England and France.

Question 30.
What was Zollverein?
Answer:
The first stage in the unification of Germany was the creation of Zollverein or the customs union of the German kingdoms. The terms of the Zollverein were complete free trade between states and uniform tariff on all frontiers.

Question 31.
What did Napoleon do to unify Germany?
Answer:
The first step to unify Germany was taken by Napoleon Bonaparte. During the French Revolution, Germany was divided into 300 states under Austrian domination. After conquring Germany Napoleon united the kingdoms and formed 39 states out of the 300 states and inaugurated a federal administrative system known as the Confederation of the Rhine in 1806.

Question 32.
What were the two main obstacles in the unification of Germany?
Answer:
Two main obstacles in the unification of Germany were:
1. The president of the Confederation of the Rhine, Austria was against the unification of Germany.
2. There were differences in ideology of the people of northern and southern Germany.

Question 33.
What was the aim of Frankfurt Parliament?
Answer:
The aims of Frankfurt Parliament was –
1. to achieve the political unity and liberty of Germany and
2. to establish a popular government in place of the government of absolute monarchy.

Question 34.
Who was Bismarck?
Answer:
Bismarck was the Prime Minister of Prussia. He followed the policy of ‘Blood and Iron’ and unified Germany under the leadership of Prussia. He took part in three wars for uniting Germany-

1. war against Denmark (1864)
2. war against Austria (1866)
3. war against France (1870).

Question 35.
What was the policy of ‘Blood and Iron’?
Answer:
According to Bismarck the greatest obstacle to German unity was Austria. He used to say that the greatest question of the day would be decided not by speeches and majority resolutions but by a policy of ‘blood and iron’. His motto was to oust Austria from Germany if possible by diplomacy, if necessary by ‘blood and iron’ or war.

Question 36.
What were the results of the Battle of Sedan?
Answer:
In the battle of Sedan (1870) France was defeated by Germany. It paved the way for the unification of Germany under Prussia’s leadership. Germany was unified and William I became the first emperor of united Germany.

Question 37.
What were the wars waged by Bismarck for the unification of Germany?
Answer:
Bismarck waged three wars for the unification of Germany. These were –

1. Danish war (1864)
2. Austro-Prussian War and (1866)
3. Franco-Prussian War (1870).

Question 38.
Mention two importance of the Battle of Sadowa.
Answer:
In the battle of Sadowa (1866) the Prussian army defeated Austria. It ended Austria’s leadership in Germany and paved the way for the unification of Germany.

Question 39.
Why was the Ottoman empire so named?
Answer:
Osman I, a leader of the Turkish tribe in Anatolia founded the Ottoman Empire around 1299. The term ‘Ottoman’ is derived from Osman’s name, which was ‘Uthman’ in Arabic.

Question 40.
When and between whom was the First Balkan War fought? Which treaty ended this war?
Answer:
The First Balkan War was fought in 1912. The war was fought between the members of Balkan League (Greece, Bulgaria, Montenegro and Serbia) on one side and Turkey on the other side.
The First Balkan War ended with the Treaty of London (1913).

Question 41.
Which countries formed the Balkan League? In which year was the Balkan League formed?
Answer:
1. The countries which formed the Balkan League were Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece and Montenegro.
2. The Balkan League was formed in 1912.

Question 42.
What is meant by Pan-Slav Movement?
Answer:
Pan-Slav was a movement of mid-19th century. It was a political and cultural movement to promote integrity and unity of all the slavic people, living in different parts of Europe.

Question 43.
What is Philke Hetaira?
Answer:
The Greeks were under the subjugation of Turkey and they fought for independence. The struggle of the Greeks originated in the activities of the Philke Hetaira (a secret society for friendly brotherhood) formed in Odessa (now in Ukraine) in 1814. Its main object was to spread the doctrine of liberty and expel the Turks from Europe. They aimed to revive the old Greek empire of the east.

Question 44.
What is ‘Vienna Note’?
Answer:
For containing Russian expansion in Turkey the three great powers of Europe-Austria, England and France met at Vienna to take a unanimous decision. In the famous Vienna Note, Russian guardianship over the orthodox Greek Church in Turkey was admitted while Russia was asked to withdraw all other claim on Turkey.

Question 45.
What were the provisions of the Treaty of Adrianople?
Answer:
Russia defeated Turkey in the Battle of Navarino and forced the Treaty of Adrianople on Turkey in 1829. According to the terms of this treaty Turkey recognised the independence of Greece. Russia got Wallachia and Moldavia. Russia also acquired commercial and political rights besides some territory in Asia.

Question 46.
Who is called ‘The Lady with the Lamp’?
Answer:
1. In the Crimean War Britain, France and Turkey fought against Russia. Sidney Herbert, the minister for war asked Florence Nightingale to lead a team of nurses to help the wounded soldiers.
2. She worked 20 hours a day. At night she walked around the wards of the hospital to make sure that the soldiers were comfortable. She carried a lamp with her, so the soldiers called her ‘The Lady with the Lamp’.

Question 47.
Did Czar Alexander II really liberate the serfs?
Answer:
Czar Alexander II passed the ‘Emancipation Statute’ in 1861 which abolished serfdom in Russia and came to be known as ‘Czar the liberator’. However in practice the peasants were not liberated. The ownership of land was denied to them and was vested in the hands of ‘mirs’. The serfs were subjected to the village mirs instead of the lords who exploited them in various ways.

Question 48.
In which year and by whom was a commission formed for the abolition of serfdom?
Answer:
In 1857 the Czar of Russia, Alexander II, formed a commission for the abolition of serfdom.

Question 49.
Czar Alexander II could not satisfy the people-Give evidence.
Answer:
In spite of passing the Emancipation Statute of 1861 several attempts were made on the life of Alexander II and he was killed in the streets of St. Petersburg by a bomb thrown at him by a member of the revolutionary group ‘People’s Will’.

Analytical Answer (AA) Type Questions (4 marks for each question)

Question 1.
Why was there a conflict between monarchical and nationalist ideals after 1815?
Answer:
The defeat of Napoleon, the French emperor, in the Battle of Waterloo (1815) meant the overthrow of the vast empire he had built. It was necessary to decide the fate of the territories which Napoleon had conquered. So the leaders who played the most important part in defeating Napoleon met at Vienna (1815) which completely ignored the will of the people.

The people did not forget the lessons of the French Revolution and demanded that the government should be formed so as to derive its right from the will of the governed. Moreover, in some countries like Italy and Germany, people who spoke the same language and were members of the same nationality were compelled to live in separate states into which these countries were artificially divided. Thus the aspiration of the people were twofold:

1. democratic or liberal which aimed at winning for the people the right to participate in the government.
2. nationalist which was the outcome of the people’s desire to form themselves into a unified state. As a result there was a conflict between monarchical and nationalist ideals after 1815.

Question 2.
“The Vienna Treaty was a reasonable and statesmanlike settlement.”-Write in support of the Vienna settlement.
Or
On what ways was the Vienna Congress successful?
Answer:
It is generally said that “The Congress of Vienna made mistakes both of omission and commission”. Inspite of the mistakes, this conference proved very useful in the following ways:
1. It was the first occasion when the representatives of almost all the countries of Europe gathered to solve the international problems.
2. It saved Europe from the continental wars for a period of about forty years. No war was fought for about 40 years i.e. 1815-1856.
3. It abolished the inhuman system of slavery. The diplomats passed a resolution and made an appeal to abolish slavery.

Thus it may be concluded that although the Vienna Congress committed many mistakes yet it is true that it was “an honest attempt to prevent future war and the best that could have been derived in 1815.”
Representatives Who Took Part in the Vienna Congress

Representatives	Countries to which they belonged
Metternich	Austria
Czar Alexander I	Russia
Hardenberg	Prussia
Castlereagh	Great Britain
Talleyrand	France
Francis I	Austria
Frederick William III	Prussia

Question 3.
What decisions were taken regarding France at the Vienna Congress (1815)?
Answer:
The following decisions were taken regarding France at the Vienna Congress (1815).

1. The Bourbon dynasty was restored in France according to the Principle of Legitimacy. Louis XVIII of the Bourbon dynasty was placed on the throne of France.
2. France was asked to pay the war expenses amounting to seventy million francs.
3. 150,000 soldiers of the allied countries would stay in France till the full payment of the war expenses had been made.
4. France was to go back to her boundaries as in 1789 and sacrifice all lands conquered by Napoleon.
5. States like Holland, Piedmont, Prussia, Austria bordering France were strengthened so that France would not be able to disturb the European order in future years.
6. France was required to restore all the historical artefacts and works of art which Napoleon had brought to France from different parts of Europe.

Question 4.
Which period is known as the ‘Age of Conferences’? What were the conferences held during this period?
Answer:
The period between 1815-1825 is called the ‘Age of Conferences’ in the history of Europe.

Five Conferences were held during this period. These were-

1. Aix-la-Chapelle (1818)
2. Troppau (1820)
3. Laibach (1822)
4. Verona (1822)
5. St. Petersburg (1825).

Question 5.
What were the main objectives of the Quadruple Alliance?
Answer:
The Allied powers-Great Britain, Russia, Austria and Prussia-signed a document in 1815 which was called the ‘Quadruple Alliance’. Their main objectives were:

1. To unitedly oppose the attempts of Napoleon and his descendants to grab the throne of France.
2. To take united action, if necessary, in order to prevent the growth of the spirit of revolution in the European countries.
3. To strictly implement the decisions of the Congress of Vienna in all countries of Europe.
4. To make united attempts to maintain peace and order in Europe.

Question 6.
What was the Concert of Europe? What were its objectives?
Answer:
The Concert of Europe was the system to designate an agreement by the major European powers to act together on European questions of common interest. Metternich wanted to make the Concert of Europe between Great Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria which was signed in 1815 into an instrument for preventing any future revolution in Europe.

Objectives: The main objectives were –

1. Preservation of peace all over Europe by suppressing any move or development that might cause wars.
2. Promotion of friendly relations among the four big powers-Great Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria.
3. Preservation of political stability in Europe.
4. To suppress nationalist and democratic forces.
5. To prevent the rise of any powerful personality like Napoleon.

Question 7.
What were the merits and demerits of Metternich system?
Answer:
Metternich was the most influential politician of Europe from 1815 to 1848 . Owing to his unlimited influence, the period of 34 years (1815-1844) is called the ‘Age of Metternich’ in the history of Europe.

Merits: Metternich was the architect of a diplomatic system which gave Europe over 30 years of relative stability. He negotiated the victory of all states who assembled at Vienna, established a system which, to a certain extent, allowed the ruling classes of Europe to cooperate rather than make war. In the field of domestic policy he was no doubt repressive and tolerant, but he provided a strong central government.

Demerits: Metternich resented liberalism, nationalism and revolution. He suppressed nationalistic and democratic trends. But his policy was not in keeping with the trends of the prevalent situation of the time. His strict conservative policy gradually led to severe revolts in the Austrian empire. In the early and mid 19th century several parts of the Austrian empire witnessed revolutionary activity.

Question 8.
What is the importance of the July Revolution of 1830 ?
Answer:
The July Revolution of 1830 is one of the most important events in the history of France. From the following facts, it can be proved that the July Revolution was an event of utmost importance:
1. After the July Revolution, constitutional monarchy was established in France under Louis Philippe in place of the absolute monarchy of the Bourbons.
2. Before the July Revolution, the aristocracy and the clergy of France used to enjoy unlimited rights and privileges. However after the July Revolution all these classes were deprived of their privileges.
3. It affected not only France but almost all the countries of Europe. England, Germany, Spain, Portugal, Poland, Belgium, Switzerland and some other countries were affected by this revolution.
The July Revolution of 1830 was a death warrant for the autocratic monarchs.

Question 9.
What was the impact of July Revolution on France?
Answer:
The July Revolution is regarded as one of the most important events in the history of France and its impact on France was undoubtedly significant.
1. The July Revolution succeeded in securing the revolutionary feelings i.e., liberty, equality and fraternity.
2. Although the July Revolution failed to remove the autocratic monarchy in France, the revolutionaries challenged the principle of legitimacy and it was replaced by legitimacy of the nation. 3. In place of absolute monarchy of the Bourbons, constitutional monarchy was established under Louis Philippe.
4. The nobles, lords and clergy who enjoyed unlimited right and privileges were deprived of the privileges.

Question 10.
How was Rammohan Roy influenced by the July Revolution?
Answer:
The July Revolution of 1830 in France bore a rich legacy for the people of the world during the 19th and 20th centuries. This was because the ideals of liberty, equality, liberalism and democracy became popular among the people. These ideals spread rapidly from France to other countries of the world. Rammohan Roy, the ‘first modern man of India’ was greatly influenced by the July Revolution. He took an intense interest in the July Revolution which he viewed as a triumph of liberty. He celebrated the success of the July Revolution in France. He was an internationalist and supported the cause of freedom everywhere. Deeply influenced by the ideals of the Revolution Rammohan Roy thought of monarchy and its absolutism as great evils.

Question 11.
Give an account of the February Revolution in France (1848).
Answer:
Louis Philippe came to the throne of France on 30th July, 1830. After coming to the throne of France, Louis Philippe introduced some liberal reforms. He introduced freedom of press and declared France to be a secular state. He could not satisfy the different political parties of France and failed to keep pace with their ideals and aspirations. Popular discontent gradually increased and a movement under the leadership of Thiers started. People demanded the end of monarchy in France. Guizot, the Prime Minister, was not in favour of any administrative reforms.

As the popular agitation took a serious turn Guizot was dismissed from office. An armed clash took place on 23 February in front of the house of the deposed Minister Guizot in which many agitators were killed. This happened in the month of February and came to be known as the February Revolution. Louis Philippe abdicated and France was declared ‘Republic’.

Question 12.
Why is the year 1848 called the ‘Year of Revolution’?
Answer:
After the outbreak of the February Revolution of 1848 against the autocratic rule of Louis Philippe, a revolt broke out in Vienna in the month of March. This revolt ultimately led to the downfall of Metternich. Later on revolts broke out in Austria, Germany and Italy. Crete and Hungary also followed the same example. The people of Rome raised their voice against Pope and he had to provide constitution to his people. The rulers of Holland and Denmark also had to provide new constitution to their people. The Revolution of 1848 also motivated the Chartist Movement of England. Thus the year 1848 is rightly called the ‘Year of Revolution’.

Question 13.
Who was Guizot? Write about his repressive policy.
Answer:
Louis Philippe, the ruler of France, appointed Guizot as his prime minister. Guizot was a reactionary and supported autocracy of the king. His main aim was to maintain the policy of ‘status quo’ in France.

When the people of France placed their demands on Louis Philippe, through newspapers, meetings etc., the monarch on the advice of Guizot imposed restrictions on the meetings, speeches and newspapers. This was a direct attack on the freedom of speech of the people. Due to the repressive policy of Guizot there was anarchy and discontent everywhere in France. In this way, Guizot and his repressive policy added fuel to the fire of discontent of the people and the February Revolution broke out.

Question 14.
What were the impediments to the unification of Italy?
Answer:
After the fall of Napoleon, Italy was divided into five principal political divisions in the Congress of Vienna and Austria became a dominant power in Italy. Italy was just reduced to a mere ‘geographical expression’. There were certain impediments to the unification of Italy.

1. The main impediment to the unification of Italy was the domination of Austria over Italian provinces.
2. The whole of Italy except Piedmont- Sardinia was under foreign rule who were not interested in Italian unification.
3. The leader of the Vienna Congress, Metternich followed an autocratic policy and destroyed the spirit of nationalism.
4. There was no organisation or Party at that time in Italy which could unite the patriots of Italy.

Question 15.
What was the contribution of Mazzini in the Italian unification movement?
Answer:
Mazzini was considered as the prophet of the Italian movement for unification. He was the founder of Young Italy movement. He founded a party known as Young Italy in 1832. He had immense faith in the power and strength of the Italian youths. Young men up to the age of forty could be its members. The objective of Young Italy were as follows:

1. Italy should be unified as one nation.
2. Austria should be driven out of Italy.
3. Republic should be established in Italy.
4. In the war against Austria foreign help was not necessary.
5. Italian unification movement should be carried on by the Italians only.

The mass uprising organised by the Young Italians for the unification and liberation of Italy ended in failure due to lack of organisation and plan of action among the rebels. His greatest contribution was that he could make the Italians realize that it was possible to have the dream of the unification of Italy materialised.

Question 16.
What was the Confederation of the Rhine?
Answer:
The first step to unify Germany was taken by Napoleon Bonaparte. During the French Revolution Germany was divided into 300 states under Austrian domination. Napoleon used the German states as an instrument of crushing the political power of Austria and Prussia. Napoleon realised that invasion of France by Austria and Prussia could be easily removed by the reorganisation of the German states. Napoleon formed 39 states out of the 300 states and inaugurated a federal administrative system known as the Confederation of the Rhine.

Question 17.
What was the Frankfurt Parliament?
Answer:
The national leaders of Germany established a Parliament whose members were elected on the basis of universal adult franchise. The main function of this Parliament was to frame a constitution for Germany to achieve the political unity and liberty and establish a popular government in place of the government of absolute monarchy.

According to the decisions of the Frankfurt Parliament, the crown of a united Germany was offered to Frederick William. But he refused this offer. His view was that he should not receive the crown as a gift from the representatives of the people. He believed in the unification of Germany through sheer force.

Question 18.
Bismarck fought three wars to achieve the complete unification of GermanyDiscuss.
Answer:
Germany was divided into many small kingdoms for a long time. Bismarck, the leader of Germany, was determined to unite all the kingdoms of Germany. He fought three wars to achieve the complete unification of Germany.
1. War on Denmark (1864): Bismarck waged war against Denmark in 1864. Denmark surrendered the two provincesSchleswig and Holstein to Austria and Prussia. The Treaty of Gastin (1865) was signed between Austria and Prussia. But Bismarck wanted Austria to teach a lesson.

2. Austro-Prussian War (1866): Next the Prussian army defeated Austria in the battle of Sadowa (1866). It ended Austria’s leadership in Germany.

3. Franco-Prussian War (1870-71): Next Germany defeated France in the Battle of Sedan in 1870. France was compelled to sign the humiliating Treaty of Frankfurt (1871). Thus emerged a unified Germany.

Question 19.
What led to the rise of Balkan nationalism?
Answer:
The Balkan nations like Greece, Egypt Romania, Serbia, Albania and others were white-skinned Europeans and Christian by religion. The causes of the rise of Balkan nationalism are as follows:
1. The Balkan nationalities were ruled by the Asiatic and Islamic power Turkey. Turkey followed a policy of Turkofication. The French Revolution inspired the Balkan nationalities to agitate against Turkish rule.
2. The Turkish Sultanate ruled the Balkan people through military force and the people of the Turkish empire owed no allegiance to the Sultan.
3. The Christians of the Balkan peninsula were oppressed by the ruling Sultans of Turkey.
4. During the later seventeenth century, Turkey’s power was gradually declining. The civil administration and the army became weak and failed to keep the Balkan people under their control.

Question 20.
What is the significance of the Greek War of Independence?
Answer:
The Greek War of Independence is a landmark in the history of Europe. –

1. It showed that the resolutions of the Congress of Vienna were impractical and that national forces could not be checked by reactionary guiding principles.
2. The Greek War of Independence was a great blow to the Metternich system.
3. The European powers were attracted towards the near east for the first time.
4. They felt that each had a common interest in the region. They also felt the need to free the Christian states from the oppressive Turkish rule.
5. The weakness of Turkey was also exposed.

Question 21.
What is the significance of the Crimean War?
Answer:
The war declared against Russia by England and France in support of Turkey in 1854 is known as the Crimean War. In this war Russia was defeated. The war is of great significance.
1. The Crimean War laid the foundation of the unification of Italy and Germany.
2. As a consequence of the Crimean War, the internal political situation of Russia was greatly affected. It exposed the weakness of Russia and the people put their demands before this government to introduce reform in the administration.
3. The Crimean War had a great impact upon international politics too. When Russia saw no chance to extend her empire in the Balkan States, she decided to increase her influence in East Asia.

Question 22.
Which treaty was concluded after the Crimean War? What were the provisions of the treaty?
Answer:
The Treaty of Paris (1856) was concluded after the Crimean War (1854).
According to the provisions of the treaty-

1. England, France and Austria admitted Turkey to the European family of states.
2. The Sultan of Turkey promised to improve the condition of the Christians living in Turkey.
3. Russia and Turkey returned the conquered provinces to each other.
4. Russia promised not to interfere in the internal affairs of Turkey.
5. Russia gave up the right to protect the Christians of Turkey.

Question 23.
How would you criticise the ‘Emancipation Statute’ of 1861?
Answer:
The Emancipation Statute of 1861 passed by Alexander II, the Czar of Russia, was criticised on the following grounds:

1. The nobles resented the loss of land. The Act also deprived them of the services of the serfs.
2. The edict did not fulfil the expectations of the serfs. The ownership of land was denied to them and was vested in the hands of ‘mirs’.
3. The serfs were subjected to the village mirs instead of the lords.
4. The annual instaliment of redemption money payable to the government by the serfs in addition to other taxes put a heavy burden on them.

Explanatory Answer (EA) Type Questions (8 marks for each question)

Question 1.
“The real purpose of the Congress of Vienna was to divide among the conquerors the spoils taken from the vanquished.”-Discuss
Answer:
According to the Principle of Compensation of the Vienna Congress (1815), the old ruling families were brought back to their respective thrones. The Congress generally followed the rule of restoring to every king, prince or duke the territory which had been his before 1789. Care was, however, taken so that each of the big four powersAustria, Russia, Prussia and England got additional territories.

1. England: England got Malta, lonian Island in eastern Mediterranean, Heligoland, Trinidad and Mauritius, Ceylon and the Cape of Good Hope.
2. Austria: Austria was compensated for the loss of Belgium by getting the Italian possession of Lombardy and Venetia and she also received Tyrol, Salsbury and Illyria.
3. Prussia: Prussia got the northern part of Saxony, Posen, Thorn, Dangeig, Rhine area and West Pomerania.
4. Russia: Russia got one-fourth part of Poland and also got compensation in Finland and in the Turkish province Bassarabia.

Thus it could be said that “The real purpose of the Congress was to divide among the conquerors the spoils taken from the vanquished.”

Question 2.
Discuss the basic principles of the Vienna Congress.
Answer:
After the downfall of Napoleon, a conference of the heads of the European countries was held at Vienna, the capital of Austria in 1815. The basic principles of the Vienna Congress were –

1. The Principle of Legitimacy
2. The Principle of Balance of Power
3. The Principle of Compensation.

The Principle of Legitimacy: According to this principle, it was decided that those rulers who had been driven from their states and had been deprived of their thrones should be reinstated. In other words, the diplomats of the Vienna Congress did not recognise any political change that had occured in Europe after 1789. They were determined to bring back the Europe that existed before the French Revolution.

The Principle of Balance of Power: The diplomats of the Vienna Congress decided that the power of the different countries should be balanced so that no country could threaten another. It indicated balancing the neighbouring kingdom of France with the latter in such a way that France would not be able to disturb the European order of 1815 in the coming years.

The Principle of Compensation: According to this principle, it was decided that those states which had helped the allies against Napoleon were to be rewarded, but those which had supported Napoleon were to be punished. Moreover, it was also decided that those kingdoms should be compensated that had either been destroyed or had suffered losses because of Napoleon. Since the allies had taken an active part in the downfall of Napoleon, it was also decided to compensate them by giving them some new territories.

Question 3.
Criticise the work of the Vienna Congress (1815).
Answer:
The Vienna Congress (1815) was convened with declaration of high morals and principles. It was expected that the settlement of the Vienna Congress would prove valuable for the establishment of peace based upon a just division of power. But it has been remarked that it was a symbol of reaction, conservatism and selfishness of big powers. It was criticised on the following grounds:
1. The principles adopted at the Vienna Congress were overlooked by the diplomats. The Principle of Legitimacy was not applied in many states like Naples, Saxony and Genoa. Each representative was eager to grab as many provinces as he could.

2. The representatives of the Vienna Congress did not represent the common people. The Congress ignored the feelings of the common people and did not respect the rights of the people.

3. The Congress ignored the feelings of nationality. They divided many states and annexed them to one another without keeping in their minds the idea of nationality. The rulers rearranged Europe according to their own desires, disposing of it as if it was their own personal property.

4. The Congress ignored the feelings of the revolution. The feelings of liberty, equality and fraternity were ignored while undertaking the great work of the reconstruction of Europe.

Question 4.
What arrangements were made in Europe according to the Principle of Compensation?
Answer:
According to the Principle of Compensation of the Vienna Congress, it was decided that those states which had helped the Ailies against Napoleon, were to be rewarded. But those states which had supported Napoleon were to be punished.
1. As England played the most important role in bringing about the defeat of Napoleon, England received the lion’s share of compensation. England got Malta, lonian Islands in eastern Mediterranean, Heligoland, Ceylon, Trinidad, Mauritius and the Cape Colony in Africa.
2. Russia got most of the Polish territory, Finland, the Turkish province Bessarabia, and a major part of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw.
3. Prussia got Swedish Pomerania, some Polish territory, about two-fifth of Saxony and large districts of the Rhine.
4. Austria was given Venetia and Lombardy in Italy as compensation for the loss of Belgium. It got Tyros from Bavaria and Illyrian provinces along the Eastern coast of the Adriatic.
5. It was also decided that those states which had supported Napoleon were to be punished. Poland was punished. This big country was divided into three parts and given to Russia, Prussia and Austria respectively.
6. As the king of Denmark had helped Napoleon against the Allies, Denmark was punished. Norway was snatched away from it and was given to Sweden.

Question 5.
Why is the period between 1815-1848 known as the Age of Metternich?
Answer:
The period between 1815-1848 is called the ‘Age of Metternich’ in European politics. In the post-Napoleon period he was the most powerful personality in moulding the shape of European politics.
1. As a Conservative Politician: Metternich was a conservative politician. He was not interested in bringing about reforms and favoured an authoritarian style of functioning. He was the symbol of those forces eager to preserve the status quo. He was eager to remove the sparks of revolution and liberalism wherever he could detect them. He was apprehensive that a liberal democratic style of functioning could bring back in Europe revolutionary fervours. Therefore, he favoured a reactionary system of governance under the leadership of Austria.

2. Domestic Policy: Metternich laid down certain domestic measures which were totally opposed to nationalist thinking such as press censorship, setting up a network of police and spies. Strict control was placed on educational institutions to prevent it from becoming breeding grounds of revolutionary ideas, suppressing nationalist and liberal ideas.

3. Foreign Policy: To maintain peace Metternich wanted to maintain status quo. He crushed liberalism in Italy, Germany and Spain. He also prevented the Russians from helping the Greeks. He kept an eye on the Russians to see that they did not extend their influence on the Greeks.
Metternich’s repressive system kept peace and order in Europe for three long decades and saved the Austrian empire.

Question 6.
What were the causes of the July Revolution of 1830 ?
Answer:
The July Revolution of 1830 in France is an important chapter in the history of Europe. The following causes were responsible for the outbreak of the July Revolution in France.
1. Reestablishment of the Bourbon dynasty: The Bourbon dynasty was reestablished in France according to the Principle of Legitimacy, but a large section of the people in France were not willing to accept the rule of the absolute Bourbon monarchs.

2. Defects of the Constitutional Charter: Louis XVIII declared a Constitutional Charter just after his accession. In the charter the king reserved to himself the highest position in the country and the rights and interests of the common people were generally ignored.

3. Unity among the different political parties: Though different political parties in France had different views there seemed to be a unity in the object of those parties who wanted to root out the Bourbon dynasty from France.

4. The Repressive policy of Charles X: After the death of Louis XVIII, his brother Charles X who was a great reactionary succeeded to the throne of France. He reintroduced the administrative system of the ‘ancien regime’ and placed the aristocracy and the clergy in power. He also brought back those emigres who had left France during the Revolution and arranged to pay them suitable compensation.

In addition to the above, Charles X appointed Polignac as his Minister who was a staunch follower of reactionary principles. When the Chamber of Deputies passed the vote of no-confidence against the ministry of Polignac on 18 March, 1830 , Charles X instead of accepting the resolution of the Chamber, dissolved it and ordered a new election. The people of France were highly aggrieved and had no other way to take but the path of revolt against Charles X.

5. The July Ordinances of Charles X: The repressive policy of Charles X reached its climax when he issued the ordinances on July 26,1830 by which he –
i. suspended the liberty of press,
ii. dissolved the Chamber of Deputies,
iii. changed the electoral system reduced the member of voters
iv. ordered fresh elections. The four ordinances sounded a challenge and the Frenchmen retaliated by revolting against the ordinances by denying Charles X as the king of France.

The leadership of the Revolution of 1830 was led by Thiers. Charles X sent his forces to suppress the revolutionaries but failed. Ultimately the revolutionaries dethroned Charles X and set up Louis Philippe as the king of France (30 July, 1830).

Question 7.
What were the causes of the February Revolution of 1848 in France?
Answer:
After the downfall of Charles X in July 1830 Louis Philippe was made the king of France. It was expected that he would rule according to the aspirations of the people of France. But soon the people became dissatisfied with his administration. At last revolution broke out in 1848.
The causes of the outbreak of February Revolution are as follows:
1. Economic: In France there was industrial and financial crisis. There was also agricultural crisis leading to high prices of bread. Artisans and labourers were thrown out of employment. Added to this was the famine of 1846 which led to crisis among the peasants. Inflation engulfed both the rural and urban population.

2. Political: Louis Philippe held elections to the Chamber of Deputies in which only the bourgeois, the rich middle class could become members. The legislature passed laws for the benefit of the middle class and ignored the labourers, artisans and peasants. Therefore it was natural for the common man to become hostile towards the king.

3. Social: The Revolution of 1848 was the act of bourgeois liberals. From 1815 onwards they also wanted to protect the state against a reactionary nobility, who want to recover its former position. Despite the abolition of serfdom and the agrarian reform, feudal authority continued to exist.

4. Constitutional: Louis Philippe did not extend the right of franchise in the country, but narrowed it down. He imposed restrictions on the freedom of press, speeches, articles, etc: The people who opposed this were imprisoned.

The last days of the reign of Louis Philippe were replete with a general feeling of disappointment and discontent. The French Revolution on 1848 was the direct result of this existing atmosphere.

Question 8.
Write the story of the unification of Italy. Or, How was Italy unified?
Answer:
The unification of Italy in the nineteenth century is an important landmark in the history of Europe. Italy was divided into many small kingdoms. Taking advantage of this the big powers like France, Austria and Spain dominated over Italy.
1. The secret revolutionary society, Carbonari took the initiative to unify and liberate Italy through an armed struggle.

2. The next step in the unification of Italy was led by Mazzini the founder of Young Italy movement. The mass uprising organised by young Italians for the unification and liberation of Italy ended in a failure.

3. After Mazzini, Cavour took the lead for Italian unification. He aimed to unify Italy under the leadership of Victor Emmanuel, the king of Piedmont. Cavour concluded the Pact of Plombieres (1858) with the king of France, Napoleon III for the liberation of Italy from Austrian rule. By the Peace of Villafranca (1859) Austria ceded Lombardy to Piedmont.

4. In the next stage Garibaldi, a great patriot and a follower of Mazzini, occupied Sicily and Naples and these were joined to Piedmont.

5. At last Venetia in 1866 and Rome in 1870 were joined to Italy and the Italian unification was complete.

Question 9.
What was the contribution of count Cavour in the unification of Italy?
Answer:
Count Cavour took a leading part in the unification of Italy. The main elements of his policy were:

1. Austria should be driven away from Italy.
2. The Italian unification to be made under the leadership of Victor Emmanuel, the king of Piedmont.
3. It was impossible to unite Italy without seeking help from any foreign country.

Cavour was appointed Prime Minister of Piedmont in 1852 by Victor Emmanuel. He concluded the Pact of Plombieres (1858) with the king of France Napoleon III for the liberation of Italy from Austrian rule. He induced the French emperor to come to the aid of the Sardinians when Austrian troops marched against Sardinia. In the Battles of Magenta and Salferino, the Austrians were defeated by the armies of Piedmont-Sardinia and the cities of Lombardy and Milan (1859) were occupied.

Thereafter when Cavour was about to attack Venice, the French emperor suddenly withdrew from the war, leaving Sardinia to fight alone. Cavour thought it would be an act of extreme risk to continue to fight alone and preferred to come to terms by which Sardinia was allowed to rule over the enlarged kingdom of Italy, comprising its northern and central states. This marked a great step forward towards a united Italy.

Question 10.
What was the contribution of Garibaldi to the unification of Italy?
Answer:
Garibaldi was a famous patriot of Italy. He was influenced by the ideas of Mazzini and he joined Young Italy. In 1860 the people of Sicily rose in revolt against their king Francis II of Naples. The rebels requested Garibaldi to help them. Garibaldi decided to come ahead to help the Sicilians. An army of volunteers was organised at Genoa with one thousand of them wearing red shirts. Therefore, they were called the ‘Red Shirts’.

On 5 May, 1860 the Red Shirts under the leadership of Garibaldi went to Sicily. It was called ‘Expedition of the thousands’, It seemed that the campaign would fail, for the king of Naples had 24,000 troops in Sicily and about 100,000 in Naples. But fortune favoured Garibaldi. The army of Sicily was badly defeated by the soldiers of Garibaldi. Now he decided to take Naples also. In spite of a big army, the king of Naples could not fight with Garibaldi and fled. Garibaldi took possession over Naples.

After freeing Sicily and Naples from the autocracy of Francis II, Garibaldi decided to attack Rome in order to complete the unification of Italy. But Cavour did not allow this because he apprehended that Garibaldi’s increased strength would be an impediment to Italian unification under the leadership of Piedmont-Sardinia. Garibaldi accepted the proposal and gave up all the conquered provinces in favour of Victor Emmanuel II.

Question 11.
How did Bismarck unify Germany?
Answer:
Germany was divided into many small kingdoms for a long time. Each state was a separate unit and the rulers, whether foreign or German, were despots.

In Germany the movement towards a united Germany started among the German youths and students, but the movement failed to make any headway owing to Austria’s opposition. Germany found a leader who wanted to unite Germany. He was Otto Von Bismarck who became the Prime Minister of Prussia in 1861. “The great question of the day” he said, “would be decided not by speeches and majority resolutions… but by blood and iron”. According to him, the greatest obstacle to German unity was the presence of Austria in Germany. So expulsion of Austria was the first condition towards the achievement of German unity.

Bismarck accordingly prepared the ground, strengthened the Prussian army and then forced a war with Austria which is known as the Battle of Sadowa (1866). It ended Austria’s power over Germany and gave Prussia the power to reorganize the German states. Prussia lost no time in organizing the whole of northern and central Germany into a single kingdom under her leadership.

Within four years, Prussia waged war on France whose ruler, Emperor Napoleon III was the friend and protector of the Catholic states of South Germany. The war ended in the defeat and capture of the French emperor in the Battle of Sedan (1870). This paved the way for the absorption of the Catholic states of the south enabling the unification of Germany under Prussia’s leadership. The king of Prussia now took the title of Kaiser, the emperor of Germany and the whole country stood united.

Question 12.
What were the steps through which Germany was unified?
Answer:
I Like Italy Germany was divided into numerous small kingdoms.
1. The first step to unify Germany was taken by Napoleon Bonaparte. After conquering Germany, Napoleon reduced the number of states to 39.

2. The second step in the unification of Germany was the creation of Zollverein, or the customs union of the German kingdoms through which all the German states agreed to follow a uniform tariff policy and complete free trade among different states.

3. The next step towards unification of Germany was Frankfurt Parliament (1849). The main function of this Parliament was to frame a constitution for Germany to achieve political unity and liberty and establish a popular government in place of the government of absolute monarch.

4. The next step was taken by Otto Von Bismarck, the leader of Germany, who was determined to unite all the kingdoms of Germany. He successfully waged war against Denmark in 1864 by which he obtained two German provinces-Schleswig and Holstein.

5. Next, the Prussian army defeated Austria in the Battle of Sadowa (1866). It ended Austria’s leadership in Germany.

6. Next, Germany defeated France in the Battle of Sedan 1870. This paved the way for the absorption of the Catholic States of the south enabling the unification of Germany under Prussia’s leadership. Thus emerged a unified Germany. William I was the first emperor of Germany.

Question 13.
What is Ems Telegram?
Answer:
In 1869 the Spanish throne became vacant. Leopold of the Prussian Hohenzollern family was invited by the Spaniards to become the king of Spain. With the possibility of both Prussia and Spain coming under the rule of the Hohenzollern family, the balance of power in Europe was threatened.

In these circumstances France put tremendous pressure on Spain as a result of which Leopold declined the offer. Not satisfied with this Napoleon III, the French king, sent his ambassador Count Beneditti to the Prussian emperor William I to get an assurance that none of the Hohenzollern dynasty would ever lay claim to the throne of Spain.

The Prussian emperor William I was enjoying his holiday at Ems. He politely refused to make such a promise to Beneditti. A report on the whole matter was sent to Bismarck by a telegram (13th July, 1870). Bismarck immediately found an opportunity after reading this famous ‘Ems Telegram’. Bismarck abridged the telegram in such a way that it appeared to the French that their ambassador Beneditti was insulted and it appeared to the Prussians that their king was insulted. Bismarck had the abridged telegram published in the newspaper. This infuriated the French. An outcry for a war against Prussia grew and war was declared by France on 19th July 1870.

Question 14.
What were the causes of the Crimean War? How did the Crimean War lay the foundation of the unification of Italy?
Answer:
I The Crimean War was an important event in the history of Europe. Nicholas I the Czar of Russia followed a policy of expansionism in Turkey. The increasing Russian dominance in Turkish affairs roused suspicion among the European powers like England, Austria, France. All the three powers had anti-Russian attitude. They followed a policy of containing Russian expansionism in the Turkish empire.

Russia, England, France and Austria met at Vienna and prepared a note in order to avoid the possibilities of war and to maintain peace in the Turkish empire. In the Vienna Note, Russian guardianship over the orthodox Greek Church in Turkey was accepted while Russia was asked to withdraw all other claims on Turkey. But the proposals of the Vienna note was rejected by Russia. So England and France declared war against Russia in support of Turkey which is known as the Crimean War (1854).

The Crimean War (1854) laid the foundation of the unification of Italy. Cavour, the Prime Minister of Piedmont, was a great diplomat. He wanted to unify Italy but at the same time he knew that Italy could not be unified without driving out Austria from Italy and that was quite impossible without foreign help. He wanted to put the ‘Italian question’ on international platform. He, therefore, sent his soldiers to the Crimean War in support of the Allies. He soon achieved success in his object when he was invited to the Treaty of Paris. He succeeded in gaining sympathy of the Allies.

Question 15.
How did the Greeks achieve their independence?
Answer:
Greece, the cradle of ancient European civilisation, was conquered by Turkey. In the 18 th century there was a revival of Greek learning, history and culture which inspired them with a spirit of nationalism. Moreover, the nationalist and democratic ideals of the French Revolution inspired them with the ideas of freedom.

The struggle of the Greeks originated in the activities of the Philke Hetaire (a secret society for friendly brotherhood) formed in Odessa (now in Ukraine) in 1814. Its main objective was to spread the doctrine of liberty and expel the Turks from Europe.

Uprisings first started in Moldavia and Wallachia in 1821 under the leadership of Alexander Ypsilanti but were suppressed by the Turkish government. Meanwhile, rebellion broke out in Morea in South Greece and in the Aegean islands. Russia, with the aim of occupying some parts of Turkey, came to help the Greek rebels.

In order to curb Russian influence in Greece both England and France joined the war. The combined Anglo-French-Russian navy destroyed the Turkish.navy in the Battle of Navarins. While the English and French fleet withdrew, Russian army totally routed the Turks and forced Turkey to sign Treaty of Adrianople in 1829. By this treaty Greece became independent under Russian protection.

Question 16.
Give a pen picture of the life of the serfs in Russia. Who was known as ‘Czar the Liberator’ and why?
Answer:
There were about 45 million serfs in Russia comprising 50% of the total population. The condition of the serfs was miserable. They were treated like animals by their masters. They could be auctioned. They were subjected to physical punishment. The serfs were tied to the lords for everything and had no freedom. The law did not recognise or protect their rights.

Czar Alexander II abolished serfdom and came to be known as ‘Czar the Liberator’. The serf system was detrimental to Russia’s progress. The unskilled, illiterate serfs were unfit to work in the factories or in the modern agricultural farms. Serf system lost its utility and became a barrier to economic progress of Russia. By the Emancipation Statute of 1861, the Russian serfs were declared free. They were granted civil rights equal to those of the free peasants. All the rights of the lords on the serfs ceased to exist. They were granted full freedom. The liberated serfs could own property, engage in business and were free to marry at their will. The land to be received by the serfs was to be fixed by magistrates called Arbiters of Peace.

Question 17.
What were the main features of Czar Alexander II’s Emancipation Statute?
Answer:
There were about 45 million serfs in Russia comprising 50 % of the total population. The condition of the serfs was miserable. They were treated like animals by their masters. Czar Alexander II passed the ‘Emancipation Statute’ in 1861 and abolished serfdom. The main features of the ‘Emancipation Statute’ were as follows:
1. The Russian serfs were declared free. They were granted civil rights equal to that of the free peasants.
2. All the rights of the lords on the serfs ceased to exist.
3. The serfs were granted full freedom. The liberated serfs could own property. engage in business and were free to marry at their will.
4. The landed estates of the lord were to be divided into two parts. The serfs would get 50 % of the land they used to cultivate under the lords.
5. The serfs must pay the landlord for the land received from him. Since the serfs had no money to pay, the government would advance the money to the lords on behalf of the serfs. The serfs were to pay back to the government in 49 installments.
6. The land was not vested with individual serfs, but the village mirs got the land and controlled it.

Question 18.
What were the similar and dissimilar traits between the July Revolution of 1830 and the February Revolution of 1848?
Answer:
Similar traits between the July Revolution of 1830 and the February Revolution of 1848:

1. Both the July and February Revolution originated in France.
2. The impact of both the revolutions was felt all over Europe-Italy, Austria, Germany, Switzerland and England and there were revolutionary uprisings.
3. There was demand for abolition of monarchy during both the revolutions.
4. Both the revolutions witnessed lack of effective leadership and strong emergence of liberal forces.

Dissimilar traits between the July Revolution of 1830 and the February Revolution of 1848:

1. The Revolution of 1830 broke out as a protest against the reactionary policies of Charles X, the ruler of France. The demand of the liberals was a constitutional government. On the other hand the revolution of 1848 was purely a Republican movement influenced by socialist ideas.
2. The July Revolution was peaceful and democratic in character. But the February Revolution was violent and nationalist in character.
3. In the July Revolution of 1830, the people who participated belonged to the middle class whereas in the 1848 Revolution, people devoted to socialism participated.

Question 19.
Was the Crimean war justified?
Answer:
Declaration of war: The war declared against Russia by England and France in support of Turkey in 1854 is known as the Crimean War. It was an important event in the history of Europe.

2. View of Robert Morier: Many modern politicians and historians have criticised the nature of this war. They have regarded the Crimean War as a useless modern war of Europe. Robert Morier writes. “The Crimean War was the only perfectly useless war that has been waged.”

Useless War:
1. The Crimean War could not give a permanent solution to the Eastern Question. The war ended with the Treaty of Paris. The provisions of this treaty could not remain permanent. According to the Treaty of Paris, the Sultan of Turkey was supposed to improve the condition of the Christian population living in Turkey. But the Sultan never carried out his promise which he had given at Paris for improving the condition of the Christian population living in Turkey.

2. The aim of the war was to weaken Russia forever. In the Treaty of Paris she was insulted and several restrictions were imposed upon Russia. Russia could never forget her humiliation.

3. England and France could not get any advantage from this war. The Crimean War proved disastrous for the allies. Therefore, it may be said that the Crimean War was quite useless and it might have been avoided.